Xitaa kuwa aan Geeks ahayn waxay u badan tahay inay maqleen " TCP/IP " laakiin qof kastaa ma garanayaa waxa uu yahay ama sida loogu habeeyo server Linux ah ^(Linux)iyadoo la adeegsanayo khadka taliska^{(using the command line)} ?

Waxay kaa caawinaysaa in marka hore la qeexo erey bixinta aasaasiga ah. Ugu yaraan, waxay kuu ogolaanaysaa inaad horumariso qaab aad ku dhisto fahamkaaga. TCP/IP ma aha mid ka reeban. 

Qaybtan erey-bixintu maaha liis dhammaystiran. Waxay ku siin doontaa saldhig aad ku bilowdo safarkaaga fahamka isku-xidhka iyo sida loo habeeyo faylasha TCP/IPLinux . 

The *Nix World

Weligaa ma is weydiisay waxa *nix ka dhigan yahay? Ka warran sida ay Unix iyo Linux isugu xidhan yihiin^{(Unix and Linux are related)} (iska daa dhammaan noocyada kala duwan ee mid kasta)?

*nix waa habka tixraaca Linux iyo/ama Unix (ama qaybin kasta) iyadoo la isticmaalayo calaamadda duurjoogta ah (xiddigaha) si sidaas loo sameeyo. 

* Nix waxa la sameeyay dabayaaqadii 1960-kii. AT& T Bell Labs waxay horumariyeen Unix isku mar. iyada oo la adeegsanayo soo noqnoqosho iyo horumarino kala duwan, Linux sidoo kale wuu dhashay.

Natiijooyinka hal-abuurkan isbarbar-dhigga ah ayaa ah in marka aad barato sida loo rakibo hal server oo loo maro khadka taliska, waxaad baratay xirfad ay u badan tahay inay la jaanqaadi karto hawlo kale oo badan oo kala duwan oo ah Unix ama Linux servers. 

Bogagga Man - Macluumaadka Fartaada^{(Man Pages – Information at Your Fingertips)}

Si la mid ah Google , Linux waxay leedahay qalab u gaar ah oo raadinta iyo cilmi-baarista kuwaas oo awood u siinaya dadka isticmaala inay helaan agabka ay u baahan yihiin. Khayraadkaas waxaa loo yaqaannaa, "boggaga man." Markaad gasho server Linux ah (ama ^(Linux)Linux - based operating system), waxaad furi kartaa arjiga khadka amarka oo ku qor waxaad rabto inaad baadho, sida inaad ku qorto erey raadin faylka dukumeenti is dhexgal ah.

Haddii aad doorato mawduuc aad rabto inaad baadho, sida utility Linux , qalab, ^(Linux)daemon, script , waxaad taas ku eegi kartaa adigoo ku qoraya "man" ka dibna ereyga. Waxaad ku baran doontaa sida tan loo sameeyo mar dambe maqaalkan.

Bogagga Man waa fududahay in la isticmaalo. Kaliya^(Just) bilow inaad ku qorto dhowr kelmadood Linux OS wuxuu bilaabi doonaa inuu kuu soo celiyo macluumaadka. Haddii aysan jirin bog nin mawduuc gaar ah Linux ayaa kuu sheegi doona taas.

Inta badan, boggaga man-ga ayaa si macquul ah ugu saxsan nooca software-ka ee ay ku muuqdaan. Tusaale ahaan, haddii aad gasho server Linux ah oo jira 10 jir, bogga ninku waxa uu soo bandhigayaa macluumaadka la xidhiidha noocaas (iyo da'daas).

Bogagga ragga way fududahay in la isticmaalo oo sax ah, laakiin waxaa jira dhowr digniinood. Aynu ku tusaalayno digniinahaas sawirada. 

Sawirka hoose, bogga man ee ARP wuxuu muujinayaa in ARP duugoobay (hoosta qaybta "note") iyo in qofku uu eego ip neigh . Waxay u ekaan kartaa, marka la eego, in mid laga yaabo inuu rabo inuu ku qoro " man ip neigh " si loo helo macluumaadka ku saabsan qalabka / borotokoolka beddelka. 

Si kastaba ha ahaatee,, ku qorista " man ip neigh " kama eegayso bogga man ee "ip neigh". Taa beddelkeeda, waxay raadin doontaa laba bog oo nin ah… mid “ip” iyo kan kale “deriska.” 

In kasta oo ay run tahay in aad heli doonto bogga nin haddii aad ku qorto "man ip neigh," ilaa aad si fiican ugu fiirsato mooyaane, waxa laga yaabaa inaad waydo in aanay ahayn waxa aad raadinaysay. 

Waxaad ku dari kartaa dash (in kasta oo taasi aysan ahayn waxa ka muuqda bogga ninka marka la tixraacayo qalabka beddelka) midkood.

Waxaa laga yaabaa inaad isku daydo inaad ku qorto " man ip-deighbour^{(man ip-neighbour)} " (u fiirso higaada Ingiriiska). Marka aad qorto kelmadaas gaarka ah, waxaad arki doontaa bogga saxda ah ee loogu talagalay beddelka bogga man ARP (ama beddelka borotokoolka ARP ). Xariiqda hoose waa tan: Haddii aadan heli karin waxaad u baahan tahay, isku day inaad isticmaasho noocyo kala duwan ilaa aad ka hesho bogga ninka la doonayo.

Tusaale ahaan, isku day inaad ka raadiso bogga man ee qalabka nslookup. Waxa aad tan samaynaysaa adiga oo ku qoraya "man nslookup". Markaad taas sameyso, waxaad arki doontaa bog nin oo u eg sawirka hoose. Waxaad baran doontaa dhammaan waxaad rabto inaad ka ogaato qalabka nslookup.

Ka dib markii bogga man-ku soo baxo shaashaddaada waxaad hoos u dhigi kartaa, akhrin kartaa, codsan kartaa, tijaabin kartaa, oo xitaa xidhi kartaa bogga man (adigoo ku dhejinaya xarafka "q" oo u ogolaanaya bogga man si toos ah u xirmo).

Haddii aad codsato bog nin oo aan jirin, Linux ayaa ku siin doonta jawaab celin ah in aanu jirin galitaanka bogga ninkaas oo aad isku daydo mid kale.

IPv4 iyo IPv6^{(IPv4 and IPv6)}

IPV4 iyo IPV6 labaduba farsamo ahaan waa isku mid, laakiin isku mid nooguma muuqdaan bini'aadamka . ^(IPv4)Waa hab lagu garto mishiinada ama aaladaha shabakada degaanka ( LAN ). Waxay si gaar ah u yihiin habka ay u aqoonsadaan aaladaha ku jira LAN- ka .

IPV4 waxay isticmaashaa tirooyinka ay ku kala soocaan dhibco/muddo. Inteena badan waanu naqaanno nooca ciwaanka IP-ga ee aanu ku aragno kombiyuutarada ku xidhan shabakadaha gaarka ah anagoo adeegsanayna qaabka IPV4

Kumbuyuutarrada shabakada sidoo kale waxay leeyihiin ciwaanka IPv6 , laakiin way ka duwan yihiin. IPV6 waxa uu ka kooban yahay xarfo alfanumeric ah oo ay kala soocaan xiidanayaal ( :). 

Haddaba maxay ku kala duwan yihiin IPV4 iyo IPv6 ? Ka fakar^(Think) sida magaca shabakada Mid waa sida magaca hore, kan kalena waa magaca dambe. Labada magacba waxay tilmaamayaan isku qof (ama kiiskan, kumbuyuutar). Sida aan guud ahaan u leenahay magac hore oo ka duwan marka loo eego magacayaga dambe, IPv4 " magaca" wuu ka duwanaan doonaa IPv6 " magaca" inkastoo labaduba ay tilmaamayaan isku mid ah mashiinka.

Carla Schroeder waxay qortay maqaal si sahlan loo akhriyi karo oo faa'iido leh oo ku saabsan IPv4 iyo IPv6^{(useful article about IPv4 and IPv6)} .

Helitaanka xididka ee Linux Server (iyo su iyo sudo)^{(Root Access on a Linux Server (and su and sudo))}

Qaar badan oo ka mid ah hawlaha u baahan in la dhammaystiro, helitaanka xididka (loo yaqaan Administrator ama superuser) ayaa loo baahan yahay. Taasi waa sababta oo ah qaar badan oo ka mid ah utility iyo apps waa kuwo xasaasi ah oo ku filan oo lagu xaddiday sababo ammaan dartood. 

Xalka kale ee gelitaanka xididka ama kicinta gelitaanka superuser (su) waa in la diyaariyo amar leh "sudo" oo u sheegaya mashiinka Linux in amarkaas gaarka ah loo baahan yahay in loo maamulo sidii superuser / xidid, laakiin amarrada soo socda ma sameeyaan (haddii aysan sidoo kale lagu sii diyaariyay dardaaranka "sudo". 

Kiisaska "sudo" la isticmaalo oo loo sii diyaariyay amarka, Linux waxay codsan doontaa erayga sirta ah si loo xaqiijiyo aqoonsiga iyo oggolaanshaha sare ee isticmaalaha.

Nidaamyada isku xirka^{(Networking Protocols)}

Waxaa jira borotokool badan oo kala duwan oo la tixgeliyo marka laga hadlayo Linux . Labada hab-maamuus ee asaasiga u ah qodobkan waa TCP iyo IP.

Nidaamka Xakamaynta Gudbinta (TCP)^{(Transmission Control Protocol (TCP))}

Hab-maamuuska Xakamaynta Gudbinta^{(Transmission Control Protocol)} , oo inta badan loo yaqaan TCP , waa hab-maamuus loo isticmaalo gudbinta xirmooyinka, sida magacu u qeexayo.

Hoos ka eeg sharraxaadda qalabyo kala duwan, oo ay ku jiraan aaladda Linux ee loo yaqaan Xakamaynta Taraafikada^{(Traffic Control)} (tc). 

TCP waxay hagtaa nidaamka hawlgalka Linux sida baakadaha looga guurayo meel kale. Waxa kale oo ay maamushaa isu-socodka shabakadda oo ay hagtaa gudbinta xidhmooyinka macluumaadka (sida galka xogta^(data) oo meel kale uga guuraysa). 

Tani waa sababta borotokoolka loogu yeero  Protocol Xakamaynta Gudbinta^{(Transmission Control Protocol)} (TCP). 

Internet Protocol (IP)

Protocol-ka Internetka^{(Internet Protocol)} waxaa caadi ahaan loogu yeeraa gaabintiisa IP.

Marka laga hadlayo IP-ga^(IP) waxaad leedahay aag ballaaran ( internetka^(Internet) ) si aad u gudbiso xirmooyinka. Waxay la mid tahay in la haysto waddo weyn oo ballaadhan, dheer, oo ka badan oo la safray… oo loo yaqaan internetka. Iyadoo TCP ay maamusho dhaqdhaqaaqa xirmooyinka shabakadaha, IP-gu waxay maamushaa dhaqdhaqaaqa xirmooyinka internetka.

ICMP Protocol

ICMP waxay u taagan tahay Hab-maamuuska Farriinta Xakamaynta Internetka^{(Internet Control Messaging Protocol)} . In kasta oo ay tahay borotokool ka jira inta badan qaybinta Linux , waxaa laga yaabaa inaan laga helin dhammaan qaybinta Linux . Tan waxa caddaynaya la'aanta bogga Man ee ku dhex jira rakibaadda ^(Man)Centos ee hadda jirta .

Jaleecada hore, waxa laga yaabaa in aanay u muuqan in hab-maamuuskan gaarka ahi uu yahay mid lama huraan ah laakiin dhab ahaantii waa. ICMP ayaa mas'uul ka ah bixinta fariimaha khaladka ah haddii/marka baakidhku aanu si habboon u gaadhin meeshii uu ku socday. ICMP waxay lama huraan u tahay in la helo warar cusub oo ku saabsan keenista (ama rasiidka) xirmooyinka macluumaadka la gudbiyo.

Habka jaantuska isticmaalaha (UDP)^{(User Diagram Protocol (UDP))}

Hab-maamuuska jaantuska isticmaalaha^{(User Diagram Protocol)} ( UDP ), sida Hab-maamuuska Xakamaynta Gudbinta^{(Transmission Control Protocol)} ( TCP ), waa hab-raaca gudbinta baakooyinka macluumaadka hal dhibic ilaa mid kale. Arrinka TCP , iyada oo qayb ka ah habka/gudbinta, waxaa jirta xaqiijinta gudbinta guusha leh ee xirmada, taasoo ka dhigaysa mid la isku halayn karo marka loo eego UDP .

Dhanka UDP , ma jiro habraac xaqiijin ah si aadan ogaan doonin in baakadaha la gudbiyay ama la helay si guul leh oo aan qalad lahayn. Sidan oo kale, waa hab-maamuus ku filan in la isticmaalo laakiin lama xaqiijin karo ama lama xaqiijin karo. 

Qaabeynta Linux^{(Linux Configuration)}

Waxa jira dhawr faylal oo habayn ah oo laga heli karo nidaamka hawlgalka Linux . 

Tusaale ahaan, haddii aad ku shaqaynayso server Apache mashiinka Linux kaaga, faylasha qaabeynta Apache waa muhiim. ^(Apache)Faylashaasi waxay u ogolaanayaan server-ka Apache inuu ogaado waxa ka socda domainka iyo si gaar ah, goobta lagu hayo seerfarkaas.

Mararka qaarkood faylka qaabeynta waxaa lagu calaamadiyaa httpd.conf. Mararka qaarkood waxaa lagu calaamadeeyay apache.conf. Ama waxay noqon kartaa calaamad/magac gebi ahaanba ka duwan. Waxa laga yaabaa inaad ka heli karto faylalka habaynta hal meel oo ka mid ah server-ka, iyo marar kale waxay ku jiraan meel gebi ahaanba ka duwan server kale.

Nasiib wanaag, waxaa jira amarro waxtar leh oo kaa caawin kara helidda faylalka qaabeynta gaarka ah. Tusaale ahaan, waxaad ku qori kartaa kuwan soo socda si aad u heshid faylka qaabeynta " httpd.conf ", haddii uu jiro:

find / -name “httpd.conf”

Erayga ugu horeeya, “hel”, aynu Linux ogaano amarka/utility-ga aad isticmaalayso, kaas oo kiiskani yahay utility “hel”. Qaybta labaad ee khadka talisku waa "/" taas oo u ogolaanaysa helitaanka utility inay ogaadaan inay tahay inay raadiyaan dariiqa ka bilaabmaya heerka xididka serverka.

Haddii aad raadineysay meel gaar ah, waxaa laga yaabaa inaad haysato wax la mid ah "/ iwm" si aad Linux ugu ogeysiiso inuu ku bilaabo tusaha iwm oo raac jidkaas. Markaad bixiso waddo/goob gaar ah, waxaad awood u yeelan kartaa inaad dadajiso hawsha, sababtoo ah Linux uma baahna inay ka raadiso meelo aan badnayn.

Xulashada " -name " waxay u ogolaaneysaa Linux inay ogaadaan waxaad ku raadineyso magaca faylka ama tusaha. Waa waxtar leh in magaca lagu daro calaamadaha xigashada, waxa kale oo aad isticmaali kartaa calaamada (*) kaarka duurjoogta ah marka aad raadinayso.

Tusaalooyinka qaar ee faylalka habaynta iyo hagayaasha ku jira hagaha “/ iwm” waxa ka mid ah: 

• pam.d – hage^{(pam.d –)} ka kooban agabka la xidhiidha qaybaha xaqiijinta. "Su" iyo "sudo" ayaa halkaas laga helay, tusaale ahaan.
• sysconfig – tusaha ay ku jiraan shaqooyinka kombayutarka, sida maamulka korontada, mouse-ka, iyo in ka badan. 
• resolv.conf – fayl ka caawiya shaqada server-ka magaca domain, haddii mishiinka Linux lagu isticmaalo awooddaas.
• adeegyada^(services) – faylkani waxa uu ka kooban yahay xidhiidhada la heli karo (tusaale ahaan dekedaha furan) ee laga heli karo mishiinka Linux .

Haddii aad la yaabban tahay in wax faylal ah, waddooyin, ama adeegyadu ay duugoobeen ama duugeen, isticmaal boggaga ninka si aad u hubiso. Tani waa hab wax ku ool ah si aad ula socoto waxa hadda jira iyo waxa isbeddelay.

Fahamka Nidaamka Faylka Linux^{(Understanding the Linux File System)} 

Qaybin badan oo Linux ah^{(Linux distributions)} , faylasha qaabeynta ayaa laga helayaa tusaha shabakada-scripts ee hoos yimaada dariiqa " etc/sysconfig ". Haddii aysan meeshaas ku taallo, waxay u badan tahay inay jirto meel/dad la mid ah. Faylasha ku jira kiiskan gaarka ah ayaa lagu muujiyay sawirka hoose.

Sida aad ku arki doonto sawirka hoose, waxa jira laba faylal qaabayn ah. Mid kasta oo iyaga ka mid ah waxaa lagu calaamadeeyay iyadoo loo eegayo is-dhexgalkooda (ie ifcfg-eth0).

Faylasha qaabeynta waxaa ka horreeya " ifcfg " oo beddelaya amarka ifconfig^{(ifconfig command)} (iyo sidoo kale qayb ka mid ah magaca faylka interface). Taasi waxay tidhi, hadda xoogaa waa la bedelay sidoo kale tan iyo markii ifcfg aanu ku habboonayn IPv6 .

Labada xiriiriye ee tixraaca ( ifcfg-eth0 iyo ifcfg-lo ) waxay tixraacaan noocyo gaar ah oo isdhexgal ah. Soosaarayaasha Linux^(Linux) ayaa gacan ka geystay aaggan, iyagoo bixinaya qeexitaan iyo jihayn qaab magacyo faylal ah. Marka laga hadlayo is dhexgalka ku dhamaanaya “ eth0 ”, waa interface ku xiran “ethernet” ama leh awooda ethernet.

Isticmaalka xarfaha " eth " waxay ku tilmaamayaan jihada saxda ah. Lambarka soo socda "eth" wuxuu bixiyaa lambarka qalabka. Marka, aaladda ethernet-ka ee soo socota waxay noqon kartaa wax la mid ah " ifcfg-eth1 " iyo wixii la mid ah.

Magaca faylka ee ku dhamaanaya "lo" waxa loola jeedaa interface "loopback". Waxa kale oo lagu tilmaamaa inay tahay " martigeliyaha^(localhost) deegaanka ." Kani waa isku xidhka shabakadeed oo aan farsamo ahaan ahayn xidhiidh shabakadeed oo dhab ah. Waxay si fudud u ogolaataa hababka inay ku wada xiriiraan qalabka iyada oo aan la xiriirin shabakada. Ka fakar "Virtual" marka aad ka fikirayso is-dhexgalkan gaarka ah.

Dhammaan qaybinta Linux waxay awood u leedahay inay dib u soo celiso (ama localhost) waxaana badanaa loo dejiyay mid si caadi ah. Waxay adeegsadaan isdhexgal ku dhammaada "-lo." Ciwaanka IP-ga ee localhost badanaa waa 127.0.0.1. Xaalado badan, loopback interface interface waxaa loo isticmaali karaa in lagu tijaabiyo isku xirka oo meesha laga saaro arrimaha kale ee shabakada ee suurtagalka ah.

Faylasha^{(The Files)}

Waxaa jira siyaabo kala duwan oo loo tafatiro qaabeynta faylalka (sidoo kalena la eego iyaga). Mid ka mid ah hababka ayaa ah in la isticmaalo " vi editor " kaas oo lagu galo amarka " vi " oo uu ku xigo magaca faylka. Xaaladdan oo kale, marka mid ka mid ah nooca " vi ifcfg-eth0 " (la'aanteed calamadaha xigashada) waxay awoodaan inay eegaan macluumaadka shabakada ee interface-kaas gaarka ah (eth0).

Si kastaba ha ahaatee, waxa aad ku talin lahayd in la sameeyo habka dhaqanka oo raac tilmaamaha qaabeynta shabakada ee laga helay bogga man ee ifcfg.

Tani waxay sidoo kale u fududaan kartaa qofka aan farsamada ahayn. Isticmaalka tifaftiraha vi waxay u baahan tahay xoogaa fiiro gaar ah si faahfaahsan markaa haddii aad si tafatiran u jihaysan tahay (ama aad horeba u ahayd barnaamij-sameeyaha ama nidaamka maamulaha) tafatiraha vi wuxuu noqon karaa xalka ugu fiican marka la shaqeynayo faylalka qaabeynta Linux .

Marka la gelayo boggaga ninka, waxaan awoodnaa inaan dib u eegno macluumaadka ku saabsan qoraalka ifcfg ee beddelay qoraalka ifconfig (sida ka muuqata sawirka kore ee bogga ninka). Sidoo kale, marka aan eegno liiska interfaces qaybinta Linux , waxaan ogaanay ifup iyo ifdown amarada. Kuwaas, sidoo kale, waxaa lagu eegi karaa boggooda ragga.

Sawirka bogga ninka ayaa ka muuqda sawirka hoose. Sida aad ku arki doonto bogga ninka, waxaa jira faylal dheeri ah oo qaabeynta Linux ah (iyo waddooyinka loo maro faylalkaas) kuwaas oo lagala tashan karo (oo wax laga beddeli karo) dejinta iyo habeynta faylalka TCP/IPLinux .

Haddii aad isticmaasho tifaftiraha khadka taliska sida vi editor si aad u aragto faylka qaabeynta, waxaad arki doontaa xulashooyinka qaarkood ee la qeexay. Tusaale ahaan, marka aad eegto is dhexgalka shabakada, waxa aad arki kartaa kelmado dhan koofiyado, oo ay ku xigto calaamad siman (=), ka dibna kelmad kale. 

Tusaale ahaan, waxaa jiri kara dardaaran ah " ONBOOT " oo laga yaabo inay dhahdo "ONBOOT=haa" tusaale ahaan xulashada qaabeynta. Waxaa jira dhowr dhibcood oo kale oo qaabeynta iyo sidoo kale xulashooyinka. Tusaale ahaan, mid kale waa NETMASK . 

Haddii aad aragto dardaaranka habaynta, " SHABKA^(NETWORKING) ," waa in ay raacdaa "haa." Haddii ay ku xigto "maya" waxay u taagan tahay dhibaato sababtoo ah taasi waxay muujinaysaa in interface-ka shabakadu aanu shaqaynayn isku xidhka. 

Waa kuwan hab-socod-tallaabo ah oo lagu saxayo xaaladda hadda la sharraxay:

1. Nuqul ka samee faylka qaabeynta, si aad u noqoto mid badbaado leh. Waxaa jira dhowr siyaabood oo tan loo sameeyo. Mid ka mid ah kuwa ugu fudud ayaa leh daaqadda amarka.
   
   Nooca: cp ifcfg-eth0 ifcfg-eth0_20200101
   
   Ka dib xariiqda xigta, ku qor: mv ifcfg-eth0_20200101 /home/mydirectory/ifcfg-eth0_20200101
   
   Tani waxay dhaqaajinaysaa nuqulka faylka aad hadda samaysay hagaha aad u isticmaalayso kaydinta.
   
2. Hadda oo aad samaysay nuqul ka mid ah faylka qaabeynta,, waa waqtigii isbedel lagu samayn lahaa faylka qaabeynta. Haddii aad isticmaalayso vi editor, waxaad ku qori doontaa kuwan soo socda:
   
   vi ifcfg-eth0
   
   Kadib markaad sidaas sameyso, faylka ayaa furmi doona terminal/command codsiga (oo la mid ah qaabka bogga man u furmo markaad kiciso).
   
   Marka faylka qaabeynta uu furmo, waxaad raadin doontaa xariiqda ay ku jirto " NETWORKING=no " oo aad tirtirtaa khadkaas ama u beddelo "NETWORKING=haa". Tan waxaa lagu samayn karaa " cw” dardaaranka ku jira vi editor. Markaad ku qorto slash hore, waxaad u sheegaysaa tafatiraha vi in ​​aad wax raadinayso. Xaaladdan oo kale, waxaad ogaysiisaa tifaftiraha inaad raadinayso "NETWORKING" markii la helo (adoo jiirka u toosinaya goobtaas) waxaad isticmaali kartaa furaha saxda ah si aad ugu guurto ereyga "maya".
   
   Markaad hesho ereyga "maya", ku jooji "n" oo ku qor " cw " taasoo kuu ogolaanaysa inaad "maya" u bedesho "haa." “cw” waxa ay u taagan tahay beddelka erayga Linux -kuna waxa uu kuu ogolaanayaa in aad ereyga oo dhan ka beddesho hal kelmad (“maya”) una beddelo mid kale (“haa”). Haddii aad rabto inaad bedesho hal xaraf, waxaad isticmaali kartaa "r" si aad u bedesho hal xaraf ama xaraf.
   
   Sawirada shaashadda ayaa muujinaya habkan hoose.
    
3. Ka dib markaad kaydiso faylka qaabeynta (sida ku qor esc si aad uga baxdo habka INSERT ka dibna laba jeer Z si loo badbaadiyo faylka), waa waqtigii dib loo bilaabi lahaa adeegga ama kombiyuutarka. Tan waxaa loo samayn karaa siyaabo kala duwan. Mid ka mid ah dariiqooyinka dib-u-bixitaanka kumbuyuutarka ayaa ah inaad ku qorto khadka taliska ee soo socda:
   
   shutdown -r now
   
   Amarka xidhitaanka wuxuu u sheegaa mashiinka Linux inuu xidho. Xulashada -r waxay u sheegaysaa amarka inaysan ahayn xidhid kaliya, laakiin dib u bilaabid iyo in hadda la sameeyo.
   
   Talo:^(Tip:) Haddii aad rabto inaad ogaato marka kombuyuutarku ama server-ku dhammeeyey dib-u-bootinta, ku qor "ping" ka dibna ciwaanka IP-ga ee kombiyuutarka/serverka (ama magac domain ee goobta lagu hayo server-ka Linux ).
   
   Adigoo isticmaalaya amarka ping, waxaad arki doontaa in server-ku uusan ahayn "pingable" (taas oo dhacda inta lagu jiro dib-u-kicinta) ka dibna marka server-ku si guul leh u bilaabo, ping-gu wuxuu ku jawaabi doonaa jawaab celin wanaagsan, taas oo muujinaysa dib u bilaabista guul leh.

Kuwa soo socda waa sawirro kaa caawinaya muujinta tillaabooyinka liiska sare ku jira.

Tallaabada 1:

Tallaabada 2:

Talo:^(Tip:) Maskaxda ku hay in wax ka jira adduunka server uusan ahayn mid kali ah. Tusaale ahaan, waxaad bedeli kartaa qaabaynta interface gaar ah (kiiskan eth0) laakiin taasi waxay noqon kartaa hal interface oo shabakad ah waxaana laga yaabaa inay saamayso (ama saameynayso) server kale.

Marka, tusaalaha kore, adoo dib u bilaabaya server-ka, waxay kicin doontaa aaladaha shabakada inay sidoo kale dib u bilaabaan. Kani maaha ikhtiyaarka keliga ah ee interface-kan laakiin interface-kan waxa saamayn doona amarka dib loo bilaabo. 

/etc/hosts File(s)

Faylka /etc/hosts hosts waa laga yaabaa ama ma jiro. Haddii ay jirto, waxaa laga yaabaa ama lagama yaabo in loo isticmaalo qaabeynta. Tusaale ahaan, waxaa laga yaabaa inaad haysato nidaam ka duwan kan ka shaqeeya habaynta martida, halkii aad si toos ah u maamuli lahayd faylka. Sidoo kale, faylka martida loo yahay laftiisa wuu kala duwan yahay. Tusaale ahaan, IPV4 iyo IPV6 waxay u maamulaan qaabeynta si kala duwan, sida aad ku arki karto sawirka hoose.

Configuration Files; Locations/Paths; Terms; and More

Qaar ka mid ah magacyada faylalka iyo meelaha faylalka waxtarka leh ee dheeraadka ah waa:

• /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ (dariiqa faylka qaabeynta)
• /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0 (faylka qaabeynta)
• /etc/hosts (faylka qaabeynta)
• /etc/resolv.conf (faylka habaynta oo leh macluumaadka server-ka)

Xaalado badan, nidaamka ama software server ayaa si toos ah u abuura faylasha qaabeynta. Sidoo kale, haddii DHCP la isticmaalo, waxaa jira dhinacyo kale oo ka mid ah qaabeynta isku xirka kuwaas oo lagu xisaabiyo duulimaadka, maadaama ciwaanka IP-ga aan la isticmaalin kiiskaas.

Awaamiirta soo socota ee khadka talisku (CL) ayaa (ama) lagu isticmaalay inta badan qaybinta Linux. Meesha ay duugoobeen ama ay ka baxeen, amarka beddelka ayaa ku qoran.

• dariiqa^(route) ( obsolete / deprecated ): Waxaa loo adeegsaday muujinta iyo wax ka beddelka waddooyinka. Waxaa lagu bedelay dariiqa ip^{(ip route)} .
• hostname : Waxaa loo isticmaalaa in lagu muujiyo ama wax ka beddelo magaca martida loo yahay ee mishiinka. 
• netstat : Eeg isku xirka shabakadaha, miisaska dariiqa, istaatistikada is dhexgalka, xubinnimada codadka badan, iwm.
• arp : ( duugoobay obsolete / deprecated dhacay ) Loo isticmaalo in lagu muujiyo macluumaadka IPv4 ; gaar ahaan khasnad deris network. IPV6 waxa uu noqday ciwaanka shabkada, isaga oo bedelaya ururinta IPV4 ee afar nambar oo ay kala sooceen xilliyo. Marka la eego isbeddelladan, amarkan duugoobay waxaa beddelay ip neigh .
• IP : Ma aha oo kaliya in IP ay u taagan tahay "protocol internet" iyo WAN ugu dambeeya (shabakadda aagga ballaaran"), laakiin sidoo kale waa utility u ogolaanaya maamulaha nidaamka ama isticmaala kombuyuutar awood u leh inuu eego xuduudaha TCP/IP iyo sidoo kale dejinta sida loo baahan yahay.
• tc : Tani waxay u taagan tahay "xakamaynta taraafikada" waana utility ka caawiya maaraynta taraafikada gudaha iyo dibadda ee mashiinka Linux . 

Qalabka isku xidhka: GUI Vs. Khadka Taliska (CL)^{(Configuration Tools: GUI Vs. Command Line (CL))}

Si loo bixiyo barta tixraaca, saddexda sawir ee soo socdaa waxay muujinayaan habka is-dhexgalka garaafyada ee isticmaalaha ( GUI ) si loo maareeyo qaabeynta isku xirka, oo ay ku jiraan TCP/IP . 

Sawirka koowaad waa Apple Mac GUI ( System Preferences > Networking ) labada sawir ee labaadna waa kuwa Windows Operating System (in kasta oo ay ku kala duwan yihiin nooca ilaa nooca). Waxa laga gelayaa iyada oo loo sii marayo Koontaroolada Microsoft Panel^{(Microsoft Control Panel)} iyo Isku-xidhka Shabakadda^{(Network Connections)} , sida aad ku arki karto shaashadaha.

Faa'iidooyinka iyo khasaarooyinka GUI iyo tifaftiraha qoraalka ama khadka taliska (CL)^{(Pros and Cons of GUI Versus Text Editor or Command Line (CL))}

Inkasta oo dad badani ay doorbidaan is-dhexgalka isticmaalaha garaafyada ( GUI ) sababtoo ah sahlanaanta isticmaalkooda, soo bandhigid muuqaal ah, iyo guud ahaan fududaantooda, waxaa waxtar leh in la fahmo faylasha qaabeynta (kiiskan la xiriira isku xirka) si aad u xalliso oo aad u saxdo arin kasta. 

Waxaa laga yaabaa inaad rabto inaad marka hore qabsato GUI^(GUI) -da laakiin waxay ku caawinaysaa in si buuxda laguu sheego… waaba haddii ay dhacdo. Sidoo kale, waxaa jira qaar ka mid ah nidaamyada hawlgalka oo aan daruuri ahayn GUI (ama aan weli mid lahayn) mar kale; waa faa'iido inaad u diyaargarowdo.

Qaybta soo socota waxaan ku soo bandhigi doonaa qaabeynta faylasha iyo sida loo galo, cusbooneysiintooda, iyo sidoo kale maareynta faylasha iyo utilities.

Linux Command-Line (CL) Aaladaha, Utilities, Scripts, iyo Daemons^{(Linux Command-Line (CL) Tools, Utilities, Scripts, and Daemons)}

Waxaa jira qalabyo badan oo diyaar u ah qaybinta Linux . Mar labaad^(Again) , sida amarrada kale waxaa jira isku mid (iyo kala duwanaansho) u dhexeeya sida qalabkaas loo isticmaalo qaybinta kala duwan. Xaaladaha qaarkood, qalabku waa la heli karaa laakiin wuxuu u baahan yahay in marka hore la rakibo, habka rakibidda badanaa wuu kala duwan yahay.

Qalabka khadka taliska waxaa badanaa loo tixraacaa qolof^(shell) iyo maalmaha hore, terminal . Waxaa jira shuruudo kale laakiin guud ahaan, waa codsi u oggolaanaya isticmaalaha inuu galo nidaamyada hawlgalka isagoo ku qoraya amarrada daaqadda.

Bal aan eegno dhowr tusaale. Midka ugu horreeya wuxuu ka yimid nidaamka qalliinka ee Windows waxayna u badan tahay inuu u ekaado kuwa yaqaan dadka isticmaala Windows . Qalabka waxaa lagu furaa iyadoo lagu qorayo CMD (sida ka muuqata sawirada hoose). 

Shaashada labaad waa codsi la yiraahdo Terminal kaas oo ku yimaada horay loogu sii rakibay inta badan kombayutarada Apple^(Apple) .

NSlookup (nslookup)

Marka laga hadlayo nslookup , ns waxay u taagan tahay server^(nameserver) -ka iyo qaybta raadinta^(lookup) ee amarka waa "kor u eeg" macluumaadka. Haddaba, waxa magaca qalabkani noo sheegayo waa in ay raadin doonto macluumaadka guud ahaan laga heli karo server-ka.

NSlookup waa qalab waxtar leh. Xaaladdan oo kale, waxaan u isticmaaleynaa si aan u raadinno macluumaadka ku saabsan eBay. Si taas loo sameeyo, waxaan ku qornaa "nslookup ebay.com" waxaana nala soo bandhigay macluumaad la mid ah sida ka muuqata sawirka hoose.

Amarka waxa uu ka muuqdaa dhinaca sare ee shaashadda (ka dib markii macluumaadka gaarka ah la qariyo). Kadibna, wax-soo-saarka codsigaas ( nslookup ) ayaa lagu muujiyay hoos kaas, oo wata macluumaadka sida Server -ka (cinwaanka IP-ga dadweynaha), cinwaanka IP-ga^{(IP address)} gaarka ah , iwm. 

Xakamaynta gaadiidka (tc)^{(Traffic Control (tc))}

Qalab kale ayaa ah "xakamaynta gaadiidka" (sidoo kale loo yaqaan "tc"). Waa aalad u oggolaanaysa jadwalka iyo habaynta xirmooyinka xogta. 

Amarku wuxuu kuu sheegayaa sida^(how) baakidhyadu u guuraan shabakad. Taasi sida^(how) dhinaca ay ku jirto jawaabaha su'aalaha sida wakhtiga, xawaaraha, qalabka, iyo in ka badan. Halkan waxaa ah khadka taliska (CL) ee matalaada isticmaalka Xakamaynta Taraafikada^{(Traffic Control)} (tc):

In kasta oo laga yaabo inay u ekaato "gibberish" qaar, erey kasta oo ku jira khadka taliska wuxuu u taagan yahay shay muhiim ah. Waa kan liiska:

• tc : Tani waa aaladda, kiiskan "Xakamaynta Taraafikada" (aka "tc"). Tani waxay u sheegaysaa khadka taliska codsiga/software ee qalabka Linux la isticmaalo.
• qdisc : Soo gaabintani waxay u taagan tahay edbinta safka^{(queuing discipline)} waana hab kale oo lagu tilmaamo jadwal fudud.
• ku dar^(add) : Maadaama aan dhiseyno qaabeynta (haa, farsamo ahaan faylka), waxaan u sheegaynaa qalabka aan ku^(adding) dareyno kontaroolada.
• dev eth0 : "dev" waxaa loola jeedaa "qalabka", ogeysiinta qalabka in aan ku dhowdahay inaan qeexno qalabka. "eth0", kiiskan, waa tixraaca aaladda. Waxaad ogaan doontaa in tani ay la mid tahay waxa ka muuqda is dhexgalka isticmaalaha garaafyada ( GUI ) ee calaamada qalabka.
• xidid^(root) : Tani waxay u sheegaysaa qalabka in aan wax ka beddeleyno taraafikada ka baxsan heerka xididka, ama egress.
• netem : Eraygani waxa uu u taagan yahay weedha, "Emilator network". Iyadoo laga yaabo inaysan ahayn shabakada qalabka, haddana waxay ku dayanayaan isku mid. Tani waxay la mid tahay sida software-ka Parallels -ku uu ugu dayanayo software-ka Windows ee kombuyuutarrada Apple . Dhab ahaantii, waa qayb ka duwan software-ka laakiin waa software ku dayasho si la mid ah sida netem uu ugu daydo shabakad. Xaaladdan oo kale, netem waxay u taagan tahay WAN (shabakad-ballaaran) oo ka soo horjeeda LAN (shabakadda-maxalli-maxalli ah). 
• daahitaanka^(delay) : Eraygani waxa uu u sheegaa tc aalada in aanu wax ka bedeleyno qaybta "daahista" ee wax kala iibsiga.
• 400ms : Horay ayaanu u sheegnay qalabka in aanu saamaynayno daahitaanka, laakiin hadda waxa aanu u baahanahay in aanu qeexno inta aanu saamaynta ku yeelanayno daahitaanka. Xaaladdan oo kale, waa 400 millise seconds. 

Maareeyaha Shabakada^{(Network Manager)}

Ujeedada Maareeyaha Shabakadu^{(Network Manager)} waa inuu fududeeyo oo uu otomaatig u sameeyo qaabaynta shabakadaada. Isticmaalayaasha DHCP , Maareeyaha Shabakadu^{(Network Manager)} waxa uu heli karaa ciwaanka IP-ga, waxa uu dhaafi karaa dariiqyada caadiga ah oo waxa uu si toos ah u beddelan karaa adeegayaasha.

Qalabka nmtui ee loogu talagalay isticmaalka Maareeyaha^(Manager) Shabakadaada ayaa diyaar u ah inta badan, in kasta oo aan dhammaan, qaybinta Linux . Sidoo kale, maskaxda ku hay in qalabyada qaarkood ay "la heli karaan" oo aan weli la heli karin. Si kale haddii loo dhigo, waxaa jira qaar ka mid ah qalabyada iyo daemons kuwaas oo u baahan in la rakibo oo aan daruuri ahayn in horay loogu sii rakibay qaybinta Linux ee su'aasha.

Mawduucyada Isku-xidhka Kale^{(Other Networking Topics)}

Waxaa jira dhinacyo badan oo iskuxiran iyo TCP/IP kuwaas oo si gaar ah u soo jiidanaya, gaar ahaan marka la macaamilayo qaybinta Linux . Ha^(Don) iloobin inaad haysatid bogag gacanta (loo yaqaan man pages) oo laga heli karo gudaha rakibaadda Linux . Marka, iyadoo tani ay u muuqan karto nooc ka mid ah liis aan xiriir la lahayn oo ah waxa ay tahay inaadan sameynin, waxaad had iyo jeer isticmaali kartaa bogga nin si aad u ogaato waxa aad sameyneyso.

Linux sida router^{(Linux as the Router)}

Maalmahan, dadka intooda badan waxay isticmaalaan qalab u heellan hawsha daabulidda (ie router) si ay u maareeyaan hawsha marinka shabakadda^{(manage the network route task)} .

Marar badan, taasi waa sababta oo ah router-yadu waa qayb ka mid ah heshiiska xirmada ee xirmada guriga ama xafiiska. Macmiilka waxaa sida caadiga ah lagu qabtaa isagoo bixinaya khidmad kiro/kiro bishii (ama sannadkii) ama inuu iibsado router. 

Si kastaba ha ahaatee waa la maamulay, waxaa jirta baahi yar oo Linux ah si ay ugu shaqeyso router ahaan inkastoo ay awood u leedahay inay u shaqeyso sidii hal. Dabeecadaha kor lagu sharaxay waxay abuuraan xaalad ku dhawaad ​​been abuur ah Linux , laakiin taasi macnaheedu maaha in Linux gabi ahaanba ka baxay ciyaarta. Waa suurtogal in la dejiyo server Linux ah sida hardware (iyo software ka dambeeya) router haddii aad u baahan tahay.

Jidka IP (Hore "Route")^{(IP Route (Formerly “Route”))}

Sawirka soo socdaa wuxuu muujinayaa sawirka bogga ninka ee "Route" iyo dardaaranka suurtagalka ah ee qalabkaas. 

SNORT – Nidaamka ogaanshaha soo gelitaanka^{(SNORT – An Intruder Detection System)}

Snort Software waa il furan oo ah Nidaamka ogaanshaha Galitaanka^{(Intrusion Detection System)} ( IDS ) asal ahaan waxaa sameeyay Martin Roesch iyo tan iyo markii uu helay Cisco Systems^{(Martin Roesch and since acquired by Cisco Systems)} . Waxay ku shaqeysaa iyadoo lagu saleynayo xeerarka isticmaala lakabyada TCP/IP ee shabakadda. Qeexida sharciyadaas waxay tilmaamayaan faragelinta si loo ilaaliyo shabakad.

How to Set Up Linux > TCP/IP Settings for Linux

Casharrada yar yar ee soo socda ayaa kaa caawin doona qaar ka mid ah hawlaha caadiga ah ee laga yaabo inaad kala kulanto adduunka Linux . 

Maskaxda ku hay in waqtiyadu ay si dhakhso ah isu beddelaan, markaa waxaa faa'iido leh inaad isticmaasho boggaga ninka iyo sidoo kale raadinta Google si aad u xaqiijiso tillaabooyinka soo socda oo aad hubiso inaysan jirin qalab kale oo shaqada si fiican u qaban kara. Sida qorista maqaalkan, taasi maahan.

Tababarka 01: U-qeybinta Ciwaanka IP Joogta ah ee Mashiinka Linux^{(Tutorial 01: Assigning a Static IP Address to a Linux Machine)}

Su'aasha ugu horeysa ee aad waydiiso waa in kombuyuutarku/serverku u baahan yahay ciwaanka IP static (mid aan isbeddelin) ama ciwaanka IP ee la bedeli karo (sida DHCP - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol ). Haddii kani yahay kombuyuutarkaaga khaaska ah (maaha server), fursadaha waxa laga yaabaa inaad DHCP u isticmaalayso gelitaankaaga internetka.

Taas macneheedu waa inaadan ku qasbin inaad ku qorto ciwaanka IP-ga taagan kombayutarkaaga. Adeeg bixiyahaaga internetka ( ISP ) iyo qalab kasta oo la bixiyay/kiraystay ayaa si toos ah u xisaabinaya ciwaanka IP-ga ee duulista si ay awood kuugu siiso inaad ku xidhato internetka. Si kale haddii loo dhigo, haddii aadan u baahnayn ciwaanka IP-ga ee taagan, beddelka isbeddelka ah ayaa kaliya u fiican kombuyuutarkaaga aan server-ka ahayn.

Haddii aad leedahay server oo aad u baahan tahay in ay dadka kale heli karaan (sida gurigaaga dibaddiisa; WAN/internet ; aan ahayn LAN) markaa waxaad u baahan doontaa ciwaanka IP-ga ee taagan si midkoodna domainka aad isticmaalayso loogu sameeyo khariidad iyada oo loo sii marayo server-ka martigelinaya ee loo qoondeeyay domainka, ama si toos ah looga heli karo ciwaanka IP-ga ee taagan.

Haddii qofna uusan u baahnayn inuu galo kombuyuutarkaaga ama server-kaaga meel ka baxsan gurigaaga, markaa beddelka cinwaanka IP-ga (dhaqdhaqaaqa; aan ahayn mid taagan) waa wax fiican, sababtoo ah qofna ma isticmaalo ciwaanka IP-ga ee taagan.

Fiiro gaar ah: Dadka qaarkiis waxay u isticmaaleen ciwaanka DHCP IP si ay dadweynuhu u galaan (haa, xataa adeege ahaan) laakiin,

1. Waxay u baahan tahay qof aad u farsamo si uu sidaas sameeyo, sidaas darteed ma aha sida caadiga ah.
2. Aad bay u adagtahay in la ilaaliyo (sababtoo ah dabeecadeeda isbedbedelaysa) marka loo eego ciwaanka IP-ga ee taagan.

Haddii aad u baahan tahay ciwaanka IP static, ka dib horay u soco oo raac tillaabooyinka halkan. Haddii kale, waad ka boodi kartaa qaybtan.

Sida aad arki doonto, amarka (kor lagu muujiyey) waxaa ku jira "sudo" bilowga xariiqda. Iyadoo ay suurtogal tahay in la isticmaalo amarka "su" (superuser) oo loo galo sidii superuser, isticmaalka "sudo" wuxuu kaliya u wadaa hal amar sidii superuser.

Habka kale, gelitaanka sidii superuser, wuxuu u oggolaanayaa dhammaan hawlaha in lagu dhammeeyo sidii superuser, taasoo ka dhigaysa mid ku habboon in la sameeyo waxa loo baahan yahay in la qabto.

Si kastaba ha noqotee, oo ay la socoto taasi waxay timaaddaa khatarta amniga, taas oo ah sababta ay u badbaado badan tahay in si fudud loogu bilaabo amarka sudo oo u oggolow appku inuu codsado erayga sirta ah (sida loo baahdo) si uu u buuxiyo amarka sida kormeeraha hawshaas / amarkaas.

Doorashadu adigaa leh oo waa in lagu saleeyaa hab kasta oo fudud. Faylka uu matalayo sawirka hoose waxaa lagu geliyaa amarka soo socda:

sudo vi /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0

Kahor inta aan la isticmaalin amarkaas, nambarka aaladda shabakadu waa la xaqiijiyay ( eth0 ) si loo hubiyo in uu sax yahay. Sida aad dib u xasuusato, isku xidhka Linux waxa lagu maamulaa faylka dhex-dhexaadinta marka waxa lama huraan ah in nambarka isfahamka laga xaqiijiyo faylkaas ka hor inta aan la tafatirin faylka qaabaynta.

Arrin kale oo ka mid ah faylka qaabeynta ee lagu ogaanayo waa isticmaalka ereyga "static." Maadaama aan ku dareyno ciwaanka IP-ga ee taagan, waxaa muhiim ah in aan ogeysiino faylka qaabeynta in uu ogaado in taasi ay tahay. 

Qoraalada waxaa lagu daray sawirka hoose sababo sawireed dartood, laakiin waa inaan lagu darin faylkaaga qaabaynta. Sidoo kale, qaybinta Linux qaarkood , calaamadaha xigashada ayaa loo baahan yahay. Faylka qaabeynta gaarka ah, wax calaamado ah kama jirin faylka qaabeynta si toos ah loo sameeyay si isbeddelku u sii socdo oo aan calaamado xigasho lagu darin.

Shaashada soo socotaa waxay tusinaysaa sida fayku dhab ahaantii u soo bixi lahaa, iyadoo laga saaray qoraalada iyo meelo dheeraad ah.

Faylka qaabaynta ee soo socda (iyo kan u dambeeya) ee la tafatiray waxa lagu gelayaa marka la daabaco:

sudo vi /etc/resolv.conf

Faylkaas dhexdiisa, adeegayaasha waa lagu dari karaa (ama wax laga beddeli karaa). Adeegayaashaas waa inay waafaqaan faylka qaabeynta kale ee hadda wax laga beddelay. Xaaladdan oo kale, at /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0 (sawirka kore).

Erayga la adeegsan doono waa "nameserver." Markaa, halka faylka qaabeynta aaladda uu muujiyo DNS1=8.8.8.8 , faylka resolv.conf waa inuu muujiyaa server-ka 8.8.8.8^{(nameserver 8.8.8.8)} .

Dhiganaha DNS2=4.4.4.4 ayaa ku tusi doona sida server-ka 4.4.4.4^{(nameserver 4.4.4.4 )} ee faylka resolv.conf.

Si dabacsan loo dhigo, tillaabooyinka kor ku xusan waxay ku shaqeeyaan qaybinta Koofiyada Cas Linux^{(Red Hat Linux)} , laakiin ma jirto wax dammaanad ah inay mustaqbalka shaqayn doonto, iyadoo isbeddellada tignoolajiyada ay dhacaan. Tani waa sababta qaabaynta loo tijaabiyo loona xaqiijiyo.

Marka qaabaynta la dhammeeyo, dib u bilow is-dhex-galka shabakadda oo leh habka la door biday sida kor lagu sharaxay. Tani waxay khusayn doontaa isbeddelada. Waxa kale oo waxtar leh haddii ciwaanka IP-ga ee taagan la tijaabiyay. Waxa aad tan samayn kartaa adiga oo isku dayaya in aad ku xidho ciwaanka IP-ga ee dadweynaha qalab kale (gaar ahaan shabakad kale).

Waxa kale oo aad wici kartaa saaxiib ama wehel oo aad isku dayi kartaa in ay ku xidhmaan ciwaanka IP-ga ee taagan meel kale oo juqraafi ah (iyo shabakad kala duwan).

Casharka 02: Shabakadda IP Aliasing^{(Tutorial 02: Network IP Aliasing)}

Waa suurtogal in lagu meeleeyo wax ka badan hal ciwaanka IP-ga hal kaarka interneedka shabakadeed ( NIC ). Tan waxaa loo yaqaan Network IP Aliasing sababtoo ah hal IP kaliya ayaa noqon lahaa mid dhab ah, marka ciwaannada IP-ga dheeraadka ah waa magacyo isku kaadh ah. Si aad u qoondayso ciwaanka IP-ga, isticmaal habka aad ugu jeceshahay ee ku meelaynta ciwaanka IP-ga sida lagu qeexay Casharka 01.

Ma aha in ay tahay in ay noqoto mid taagan, laakiin si loo helo cinwaano badan oo IP ah oo loo qoondeeyey iyada oo la adeegsanayo Network IP Aliasing , mid waa inuu ku meeleeyaa ciwaannada IP-ga isagoo isticmaalaya IP-ga taagan.

Tababarka 03: Beddel Magaca Martigeliyaha ee Mashiinka Linux^{(Tutorial 03: Change Host Name of the Linux Machine)}

Isticmaal tillaabooyinka soo socda si aad u bedesho magaca martida ee mashiinka Linux adiga oo isticmaalaya tifaftiraha aad door bidayso:^(Linux)

1. Wax ka beddel faylka qaabeynta magaca martida loo yahay adiga oo ku qoraya kuwa soo socda abka khadka taliska:

   sudo vi /etc/hostname

Meel kasta oo aad ku aragto magaca martida loo yahay ee faylka qaabeynta, ku beddel magaca cusub ee martida loo yahay.

2. Wax ka beddel faylka qaabeynta martida adiga oo ku qoraya kuwa soo socda abka khadka taliska:

   sudo vi /etc/hosts

Meel kasta oo aad ku aragto magacii hore ee martida loo ahaa faylkaas, ku beddel magaca cusub ee la doortay/magaca magaca martida loo yahay si la mid ah sidii aad ku samaysay faylka qaabaynta magaca martida ee tillaabada kowaad ee sare.^(hostname)

3. Dib u bilaw server-ka ama kombayutarka Linux^(Linux) . Hal dariiqo oo tan lagu sameeyo (waxay kuxirantahay Linux distro-kaaga) waa inaad ku qorto kuwan soo socda khadka taliska:

   sudo shutdown –r now

Dib u bilaabashadan ayaa loo baahan yahay si isbedeladu u dhaqan galaan.

Tababarka 04: Daar oo dami NIC-gaaga^{(Tutorial 04: Enable and Disable Your NIC)}

Mid ka mid ah waxyaabaha ugu xiisaha badan ee aad ku samayn karto khadka taliska ee Linux waa inaad awood u yeelato ama aad joojiso xidhiidhka Ethernet .

Si aad tan u samayso, ku qor amarka ku habboon labadan:

   sudo ip link setup

   sudo ip link setdown

Noocyadii hore ee Linux , waxaad ku ordi kartaa ifconfigup ama ifconfigdown, laakiin waxaa suurtogal ah in amarradaas ay meesha ka baxeen ama ay duugoobeen qaybinta cusub ee Linux . Xaaladdaas, taliska cusub ee ip waa la door bidayaa.

Tababarka 05: Daar u gudbida Shabakadda^{(Tutorial 05: Enable Network Forwarding)}

Nidaamka hawlgalka Linux wuxuu awood u leeyahay inuu isku xiro shabakado kala duwan wuxuuna u dhaqmi karaa sidii router ahaan. Waxa kaliya ee aad u baahan tahay inaad sameyso waa uncomment the net.ipv4.ip_fporward=1 line kaasoo awood kuu siin doona inaad gudbiso ciwaanka IP-ga.

Faylka qaabeynta lagama maarmaanka ah waxaa sida caadiga ah lagu kaydiyaa /etc/sysctl.conf :

Tusaalooyinka ku saabsan sida loo dejiyo, fiiri " How to enable IP forwarding on Linux (IPv4 / IPv6) ."

Haddii aad dejinayso server Linux ah adoo isticmaalaya ^(Linux)DHCP (halkii ciwaanka IP-ga ee taagan) waxaad dooran kartaa qaab gudbinta shabakada. Tani ma aha mid caadi ah, laakiin halkan tixraac sababtoo ah waa la samayn karaa oo waxay u taagan tahay kiis uu qof u janjeero inuu sidaas sameeyo.

Casharka 06: Amarrada fog ee loo maro Shell^{(Tutorial 06: Remote Commands Via Shell)}

Xaaladda aad u baahan tahay inaad gasho server Linux ah oo server-kaasi uusan ku yaal meel juqraafi ah, waxaad u baahan kartaa inaad isticmaasho amarrada fog si aad u gasho server-  kaas Linux ah.^(Linux)

Kuwa borogaraamka ama maamulayaasha nidaamka, "ka fogaanshaha" server-ka waa dhacdo caadi ah. 

Mid ka mid ah siyaabaha ugu caansan ee tan loo sameeyo waa in la isticmaalo amarka " ssh ", ogeysiinta khadka taliska inuu ogaado inaad rabto inaad si ammaan ah u gasho server-ka Linux , xitaa haddii aad sidaas ku sameyneyso xiriir aan ammaan ahayn. 

Marka lagu daro isticmaalka amarka "ssh", waxaad u baahan tahay inaad bixiso macluumaadka meesha aad ku xiran tahay iyo sida (oo ay ku jiraan xulashooyinka kale ee la heli karo).

Waxaad u isticmaali kartaa magac domain gelitaanka server Linux ama xitaa ciwaanka IP-ga ee dadweynaha. Magaca ama cinwaanka IP-ga ayaa u sheegaya taliska ssh waxa uu gelayo iyo halka laga helayo.

Ikhtiyaarada kale waxa ku jiri kara magaca isticmaalaha ee loo isticmaali doono gelitaanka serfarka fog. Haddii aan ikhtiyaarkaas la qeexin, waxaa laga yaabaa in la codsado laakiin sidoo kale waa ikhtiyaar lagu qeexo isla waqtigaas taliska ssh.

Tusaale ahaan:

   ssh username myserver.com

Erayga sirta ah waxaa sidoo kale lagu habayn karaa taliska laakiin waxaa lagula talinayaa, sababo ammaan dartood, inaad geliso taas wakhtiga xidhiidhka ee seerfarka fog. 

Waa maxay sababtu? Haddii erayga sirta ah lagu qoro amarka, qoraal caadi ah, waxaa geli kara qofka ku xiga ee isticmaalaya isla kumbuyuutarkaas waxayna heli karaan erayga sirta ah.

Sababo amni oo dheeri ah waxaa laga yaabaa inaad rabto inaad ka gasho server-ka Linux adoo adeegsanaya deked gaar ah. Adoo qeexaya deked laga yaabo in la isticmaalo, waxaad xannibi kartaa dekedo kale oo aad ka hortagi kartaa isku dayga hackers ama DOS (diidmada adeegga). 

Waxaa jira meelo badan oo kala duwan oo qaabeynta loogu talagalay ssh. Qaar ka mid ah kuwan ayaa ku taxan shellhacks.com .

Tababarka 07: Qalabka Korjoogteynta Shabakadda^{(Tutorial 07: Network Monitoring Tools)}

Hal qayb oo muhiim ah oo ka mid ah maaraynta shabakadu waa xaqiijinta in wax walba ay shaqeeyaan oo ay sii wadaan shaqada. Tan waxaad ku samayn kartaa la socodka shabakada Aaladaha u sahlaya la socodka shabkada way kala duwan yihiin balse ugu dambayntii waxay gaadhaan yoolal iyo yoolal isku mid ah.  

Mid ka mid ah qalabka kormeerka shabakadda waa Cacti . Cacti   waa aalad la socodka shabakada isha furan. Cacti waxay la socotaa shabakada waxayna bixisaa sawiro garaaf ah oo waxa la galiyay. Tani waxay ka caawisaa isticmaalayaasha (gaar ahaan kuwa cusub) inay aqoonsadaan meelaha laga yaabo inay arrimo ka jiraan.

Dhamaadka hore waxa uu qaadi karaa isticmaaleyaal badan waxaana mararka qaarkood loo adeegsadaa martigelinta adeegyada si ay u muujiyaan macluumaadka xawaaraha xawaaraha waqtiga-dhabta ah iyo xogta kale ee garaafyada soo socda.

Xogta waxaa lagu quudin karaa Cacti iyada oo loo marayo qoraal kasta oo dibadda ah ama amar kasta. Cacti waxay isu keeni doontaa xogta iyada oo loo marayo cron-job oo buuxin doonta xogta MySQL ka hor inta aanad u soo bandhigin garaafka isticmaalaha dhamaadka hore.

Si loo maareeyo xog ururinta, waxaad ku quudin kartaa cacti waddooyinka qoraalka/amarka dibadda oo ay la socoto xog kasta oo isticmaaluhu u baahan doono inuu "buuxiyo". Cacti ayaa markaa ku soo ururin doonta xogtan shaqo-cron-shaqo oo ku shubi doonta xogta MySQL .

Cacti waa qalab faa'iido leh oo loogu talagalay maamulayaasha shabakadaha kuwaas oo raba inay la socdaan isticmaalka shabakada oo ay siiyaan macaamiisha muuqaal si sahlan loo fahmi karo. Cacti waxaa lagu soo dejisan karaa bilaash cacti.net . Shabakadda waxaa ku jira dukumeenti lagu rakibayo laguna habeynayo aaladda la socodka shabakada.

Beddelka Cacti ee aad isku dayi karto waxaa ka mid ah, Solarwinds NPM , PRTG iyo Nagios . Solarwinds waxay taageeri doontaa SNMP iyo sidoo kale ICMP/Ping , WMI , Netflow , Sflow , Jflow iyo IPFIX , si loo magacaabo dhowr. Qaababka horay loo dhisay, garaafyada iyo digniinaha ayaa kaa caawinaya inaad si dhakhso leh u bilowdo la socodka shabakadaada.

PRTG waxay ku bixisaa ilaa boqol Sensors oo bilaash ah. Waxay leedahay astaamo la mid ah Solarwinds , oo ay la socoto digniino dabacsan iyo codsiyada taleefannada casriga^{(Smartphones)} ah, tablet-yada, ipadyada.

Nagios wuxuu leeyahay dhammaan qalabka aad ka heli doonto Cacti , laakiin wuxuu u baahan yahay qaabayn yar oo dheeraad ah. Waxaa jira plugins badan oo laga dooran karo. Waxay leedahay sumcad adag sida mid ka mid ah qalabka maamulka iyo kormeerka ugu da'da weyn. Laakiin, waa inaad gacmahaaga wasakh u yeelataa dayactirka faylalka qaabeynta.

How To Set Up & Configure TCP/IP Files On Linux (TCP/IP Settings For Linux)

Even nоn-geeks have likely heard of “TCP/IP” but does everyone know what it is or how to сonfigure it on a Linυx server using the command line?

It helps to define basic terminology first. At the very least, it allows you to develop a framework on which to build your understanding. TCP/IP is no exception. 

This section on terminology is not an exhaustive list. It’ll give you a basis on which to start your journey into understanding networking and how to configure TCP/IP files on Linux. 

The *Nix World

Have you ever wondered what *nix means? What about how Unix and Linux are related (let alone all of the various versions of each)?

*nix is a method of referencing Linux and/or Unix (or any distribution) using a wildcard (the asterisk) to do so. 

*Nix was developed in the late 1960’s. AT&T Bell Labs developed Unix at around the same time. hrough various iterations and developments, Linux was also born.

The result of these parallel innovations is that once you learn how to perform installations on one server via the command line, you’ve learned a skill that’s likely compatible with many other tasks on a variety of Unix or Linux servers. 

Man Pages – Information at Your Fingertips

Much like Google, Linux has its own set of search and research tools that enable users to find the resources they need. Those resources are known as, “man pages.” When you are logged into a Linux server (or Linux-based operating system), you can open the command-line application and type in what you would like to research, like typing in a search term in an interactive documentation file.

If you pick a topic you want to research, like a Linux utility, tool, daemon, script, you can look that up by typing “man” and then the word. You will learn how to do this later in this article.

Man pages are easy to use. Just start typing a couple of words and the Linux OS will begin returning the information to you. If there’s no man page for a particular topic Linux will tell you that.

For the most part, man pages are reasonably accurate for the software version on which they appear. For example, if you are logged into a Linux server that’s 10 years old, the man page displays information relative to that version (and age).

Man pages are easy to use and accurate, but there are a couple of caveats. Let’s illustrate those caveat(s) via images. 

In the image below, the man page for ARP indicates that ARP is obsolete (under the “notes” section) and that one should look up ip neigh instead. It would seem, by that notation, that one may want to type “man ip neigh” to access information about the replacement tool/protocol. 

However,, typing “man ip neigh” does not look up the man page for “ip neigh”. Instead, it’ll look up two man pages… one for “ip” and the other for “neigh.” 

While it’s true that you’ll get a man page if you type “man ip neigh,” unless you are paying close attention, you may miss that it’s not actually what you were looking for. 

You could add a dash (even though that isn’t what shows in the man page when referencing the replacement tool)… So, if you add a dash and type “man ip-neigh” that also works fine but it isn’t correct either.

You might try typing “man ip-neighbour” (note the British spelling). When you type that particular phrase, you’ll see the correct man page for replacing the ARP man page (or replacing the ARP protocol). The bottom line is this: If you can’t find what you need, try using different combinations until you get the desired man page.

As an example, try looking up the man page for the nslookup tool. You do this by typing “man nslookup”. When you do that, you’ll see a man page that looks similar to the image/screenshot below. You’ll learn all you’d want to know about the nslookup tool.

After the man page pops up on your screen you can scroll down, read, apply, test, and even close out the man page (by typing the letter “q” and letting the man page automatically close).

If you request a man page that doesn’t exist, Linux will provide you with the feedback that there’s no entry for that man page and to try another one.

IPv4 and IPv6

Both IPv4 and IPv6 are technically the same, but they don’t appear the same to us humans. They’re a means of identifying machines or devices on a local area network (LAN). They’re private in the way that they identify the devices in the LAN.

IPv4 uses numbers separated by dots/periods. Most of us are  familiar with the type of IP addresses we see for computers connected to our private networks using the IPv4 format.

Computers on a network also have an IPv6 address, but it looks different. IPv6 is composed of alphanumeric characters separated by colons ( : ). 

So what are the differences between IPv4 and IPv6? Think of it like a network name. One is like the first name and the other is the last name. Both names point to the same person (or in this case, a computer). Just as we generally have a different first name compared to our last name, the IPv4 “name” will be different from the IPv6 “name” even though they both point to the same machine.

Carla Schroeder has written an easy-to read and useful article about IPv4 and IPv6.

Root Access on a Linux Server (and su and sudo)

For many of the tasks that need to be completed, root access (a.k.a. Administrator or superuser) is required. That’s because many of these utilities and apps are sensitive enough that they’re restricted for security reasons. 

An alternative solution to logging in as root or triggering superuser access (su) is to prepend a command with “sudo” telling the Linux machine that that particular command needs to be run as superuser/root, but that subsequent commands do not (unless also prepended with the “sudo” directive). 

In cases where “sudo” is used and prepended to the command, Linux will request the su password in order to authenticate the superuser identity and permissions.

Networking Protocols

there are many different protocols to consider when discussing Linux. The two protocols that are primary to this article are TCP and IP.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

Transmission Control Protocol, more often referred to as TCP, is a protocol used for the transmission of packets, just as the name describes.

See below for an explanation of various tools, including the Linux tool called Traffic Control (tc). 

TCP directs the Linux operating system on how packets should move from one place to another. It also controls network traffic and directs the transmission of packets of information (like folders of data moving from one place to another). 

This is why the protocol is called  Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). 

Internet Protocol (IP)

Internet Protocol is commonly referred to by its acronym, IP.

In the case of the IP you have a wider area (the Internet) to transmit packets. It’s like having a wider, longer, and more travelled super highway… called the internet. While TCP controls the movement of packets across a network, IP controls the movement of packets across the internet.

ICMP Protocol

ICMP stands for Internet Control Messaging Protocol. While it’s a protocol that’s available in most Linux distributions, it may not be available on all Linux distributions. This was evidenced by the lack of a Man page within a current Centos installation.

At first glance, it may not seem like this particular protocol is that essential but in reality it is. ICMP is responsible for providing error messages if/when a packet doesn’t properly reach its destination. ICMP is essential for receiving status updates on the delivery (or receipt) of the packets of information being transmitted.

User Diagram Protocol (UDP)

User Diagram Protocol (UDP), like Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), is a protocol for the transmission of packets of information from one point to another. In the case of TCP, as a part of the process/transmission, there’s a verification of successful delivery of the packet(s), making it more reliable than UDP.

In the case of UDP,  there’s no verification process so you won’t know whether the packets were transmitted or received successfully and without error. As such, it’s an easy enough protocol to utilize but it’s not verifiable or able to be authenticated. 

Linux Configuration

There’s several configuration files available in the Linux operating system. 

For example, if you’re running an Apache server on your Linux machine, the Apache configuration files are important. Those files let the Apache web server know what’s going on with the domain and more specifically, the site that’s hosted on that server.

Sometimes the configuration file is labeled as httpd.conf. Sometimes it’s labeled as apache.conf. Or it could be a completely different label/name. You may find the configuration files in one location on one server, and other times they’re in a completely different location on another server.

Fortunately, there are helpful commands that may assist in locating specific configuration files. For example, you can type the following to locate the “httpd.conf” configuration file, if it exists:

find / -name “httpd.conf”

The first word, “find”, let’s Linux know what command/utility you’re using, which in this case is the “find” utility. The second component of the command line is the “/” which lets the find utility know that it should be searching the path starting from the root level of the server.

If you were looking in a more specific location, you may have something like “/etc” to let Linux know to start in the etc directory and follow that path. By providing a specific path/location, you can potentially speed up the process, because Linux doesn’t have to search in places that are redundant.

The “-name” option lets Linux know what you’re looking for in the name of the file or directory. It’s helpful to include the name in quotation marks, and you can also use an asterisk ( * ) as a wild card when searching.

Some examples of configuration files and directories in the “/etc” directory/path include: 

• pam.d – a directory that contains utilities related to authentication modules. “Su” and “sudo” are found there, as an example.
• sysconfig – a directory that includes functions of the computer, like power management, mouse, and more. 
• resolv.conf – a file that aids in the functionality of the domain name server, if the Linux machine is being used in that capacity.
• services – this file contains the available connections (i.e. open ports) available on the Linux machine.

If you’re wondering if any files, paths, or utilities are obsolete or deprecated, use the man pages to check. This is a helpful way to keep tabs on what is current and what has changed.

Understanding the Linux File System 

In many Linux distributions, configuration files are found in the network-scripts directory under the “etc/sysconfig” path. If they’re not located there, it’s likely that there’s a similar location/path. The files that are present in this particular case are shown in the screenshot below.

As you’ll see in the screenshot below, there are two configuration files. Each of them are labeled according to their respective interfaces (i.e. ifcfg-eth0).

The configuration files are preceded by “ifcfg” which replaces the ifconfig command (as well as becoming a part of the interface file name). That said, it has now been somewhat replaced as well since the ifcfg is not compatible with IPv6.

The two interfaces references (ifcfg-eth0 and ifcfg-lo) refer to specific types of interfaces. Linux developers were helpful in this area, providing definition and direction in the form of file names. In the case of the interface ending in “eth0”, it’s an interface that’s connected via “ethernet” or has ethernet capability.

The use of the letters “eth” point you in the right direction. The number that follows “eth” provides the number of the device. So, the next ethernet device may be something like “ifcfg-eth1” and so forth.

The file name that ends in “lo” refers to a “loopback” interface. It’s also referenced as the “localhost.” This is a network connection that isn’t technically a real network connection. It simply allows processes to communicate on the device without communicating over the network. Think “virtual” when thinking about this particular interface.

All Linux distributions are capable of having a loopback (or localhost) and are usually set up for one by default. They use an interface that ends in “-lo.” The IP address for the localhost is usually 127.0.0.1. In many cases, the loopback virtual interface can be used to test connections and rule out other potential network issues.

The Files

There are different ways to edit configuration files (as well as view them). One method is to use the “vi editor” that’s accessed via the command “vi” followed by the filename. In this case, when one types “vi ifcfg-eth0” (without the quotation marks) they are able to view the network information for that particular interface (eth0).

However, it would be more advisable to do it the traditional way and follow the network configuration instructions found in the man page for ifcfg.

This may also be easier for the non-technical person. Using the vi editor does require a bit of attention to detail so if you’re detail-oriented (or you’re already a programmer or system administrator) the vi editor may be an optimal solution when working with Linux configuration files.

In accessing the man pages, we’re able to review information about the ifcfg script that replaced the ifconfig script (as shown in the above screenshot of the man page). Also, when looking at the list of interfaces in the Linux distribution, we notice the ifup and ifdown commands. Those, too, can be reviewed in their man page(s).

A screenshot of the man page is shown in the image below. As you will see in the man page, there’s additional Linux configuration files (and the paths to get to those files) that can be consulted (and modified) in the set up and configuring of the TCP/IP files on Linux.

If you use a command-line text editor like the vi editor to view the configuration file, you will notice some options that are defined. For example, in looking at the network interface, you may see words in all caps, followed by an equals sign (=), and then another word. 

For example, there may be a directive that’s “ONBOOT” and it may say “ONBOOT=yes” as an example of a configuration option. There’s several other configuration points and options as well. For example, another one is NETMASK. 

If you see the configuration directive, “NETWORKING,” it should be followed by a “yes.” If it’s followed by “no” it may represent a problem because that would indicate that the network interface is not activated for networking. 

Here is a step-by-step process to correcting the situation just described:

1. Make a copy of the configuration file, to be safe. There are a few ways to do this. One of the easiest is with the  command window.
   
   Type: cp ifcfg-eth0 ifcfg-eth0_20200101
   
   Then on the next line, type: mv ifcfg-eth0_20200101 /home/mydirectory/ifcfg-eth0_20200101
   
   This moves the file copy you just made to a directory you’re using for backups.
   
2. Now that you’ve made a backup of the configuration file,, it’s time to make changes to that configuration file. If you’re using the vi editor, you would type the following:
   
   vi ifcfg-eth0
   
   After doing so, the file will open in the terminal/command application (similar to the way a man page opens when you trigger it).
   
   Once the configuration file is open, you would look for the line that includes “NETWORKING=no” and delete that line or change it to “NETWORKING=yes”. This can be done with the “cw” directive in the vi editor. By typing a forward slash, you’re telling the vi editor that you’re searching for something. In this case, you let the editor know that you are searching for “NETWORKING” and when it’s found (directing the mouse to that location) you can use the right arrow key to move to the word “no”.
   
   When you get to the word “no”, stop on the “n” and type “cw” allowing you to change the “no” to “yes.” The “cw” stands for change word and Linux allows you to change the entire word from one word (“no”) to another (“yes”). If you only wanted to change one letter, you could use an “r” to replace one letter or character.
   
   The screenshots show this process below.
    
3. After saving the configuration file (i.e. typing esc to get out of the INSERT mode and then a double Z to save the file), it’s time to restart the service or the computer. This can be done in several different ways. One method to reboot the computer is typing the following command line:
   
   shutdown -r now
   
   The shutdown command tells the Linux machine to shutdown. The -r option  tells the command that it isn’t just a shutdown, but a reboot and to do it now.
   
   Tip: If you want to know when the computer or server has completed the reboot, type “ping” and then the public IP address of the computer/server (or a domain name of a site hosted on the Linux server).
   
   By using the ping command, you will see that the server is not “pingable” (which happens during the reboot) and then when the server successfully restarts, the ping will respond with a positive response, indicating a successful reboot.

The following are some images that help to illustrate the steps in the above list.

Step 1:

Step 2:

Tip: Keep in mind that nothing in the server world is singular. For example, you may change the configuration for a particular interface (in this case eth0) but that may be just one interface on a network and may be affected by (or affect) another server.

So, in the example above, by restarting the server, it will trigger network devices to also restart. This is not the singular option for this interface but this interface would be affected by a command to restart. 

/etc/hosts File(s)

The /etc/hosts file may or may not exist. If it does exist, it may or may not be used in the configuration. For example, you may have a different system that handles host configurations, rather than managing the file directly. Also, the hosts file itself varies. For example, IPv4 and IPv6 handle the configuration differently, as you can see in the image below.

Configuration Files; Locations/Paths; Terms; and More

Some additional helpful filenames and file locations are:

• /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ (configuration file path)
• /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0 (configuration file)
• /etc/hosts (configuration file)
• /etc/resolv.conf (configuration file with nameserver information)

In many cases, system or server software creates the configuration files automatically. Also, if DHCP is used, there are other aspects of the networking configuration that are calculated on-the-fly, since static IP addresses are not used in that case.

The following command-line (CL) commands were (or are) used in most Linux distributions. Where they are obsolete or deprecated, the replacement command is listed.

• route (obsolete / deprecated): Was used to show and edit routes. Replaced by ip route.
• hostname: Used to display or amanipulate and edit the hostname of the machine. 
• netstat: View network connections, routing tables, interface statistics, multicast memberships, etc.
• arp: (obsolete / deprecated) Used to be used to show IPv4 information; specifically the network neighbor cache. IPv6 has become the network address, replacing the IPv4 collection of four numbers separated by periods. In light of these changes, this obsolete command has been replaced by ip neigh.
• ip: Not only does IP stand for “internet protocol” and the ultimate WAN (wide area network”) but it’s also a utility that allows the system administrator or computer user the ability to view the TCP/IP parameters as well as setting them as needed.
• tc: This stands for “traffic control” and is a utility to help with managing the inbound and outbound traffic on the Linux machine. 

Configuration Tools: GUI Vs. Command Line (CL)

To provide a point of reference, the following three images display a graphical user interface (GUI) mechanism to handle the configuration of networking, including TCP/IP. 

The first image is the Apple Mac GUI (System Preferences > Networking) and the second two images are that of the Windows Operating System (though it varies from version to version). It’s accessed via the Microsoft Control Panel and Network Connections, as you can see in the screenshots.

Pros and Cons of GUI Versus Text Editor or Command Line (CL)

While many people prefer graphical user interfaces (GUI) because of their ease of use, visual presentation, and overall simplicity, it’s helpful to understand configuration files (in this case related to networking) so that you can troubleshoot and correct any issues. 

You may want to grab the GUI first but it helps to be fully informed… just in case. Also, there’s some operating systems that do not necessarily have a GUI (or don’t have one yet) so again; it’s helpful to be prepared.

In the next section we’ll cover configuration files and how to access them, update them, as well as the management of the files and utilities.

Linux Command-Line (CL) Tools, Utilities, Scripts, and Daemons

There are many tools that are available for Linux distributions. Again, like other commands there are similarities (and differences) between how those tools are used in the different distributions. In some cases, tools are available but need to be installed first, and the installation process often varies.

The command line tool is often referenced as shell and in the early days, terminal. There are other terms for it but generally, it’s an application that allows the user to access operating systemsby typing commands in a window.

Let’s look at a couple of examples. The first one is from the Windows operating system and likely looks familiar to Windows users. The tool is openedby typing CMD (as shown in the screenshots below). 

The second screenshot is that of an application called Terminal that comes pre-installed on most Apple computers.

NSLookup (nslookup)

In the case of nslookup, the ns stands for nameserver and the lookup portion of the command is a “look up” of information. So, what the name of this tool is telling us is that it’ll look up information generally available via a nameserver.

NSLookup is a handy tool. In this case, we are using it to look up information about eBay. In order to do so, we type “nslookup ebay.com” and we’re presented with information that’s similar to what’s shown in the image below.

The command is displayed at the top of the screenshot (after the blurred out private information). Then, the output from that request (the nslookup) is shown below that, with information such as Server (the public IP address), the specific IP address, etc. 

Traffic Control (tc)

Another tool is the “Traffic Control” tool (also referred to as “tc”). It’s a tool that allows the scheduling and processing of data packets. 

The command tells you how the packets move over a network. That how aspect includes the answers to questions like timing, speed, devices, and more. Here is a command line (CL) representation of the use of Traffic Control (tc):

While it might look like “gibberish” to some, each word in the command line represents something important. Here is the listing:

• tc: This is the tool, in this case “Traffic Control” (a.k.a. “tc”). This tells the command line application/software which Linux tool to use.
• qdisc: This abbreviation stands for queuing discipline and is another way of describing a simple scheduler.
• add: Since we are building a configuration (yes, technically a file), we are telling the tool that we are adding to the controls.
• dev eth0: The “dev” refers to the “device”, letting the tool know that we’re about to define the device. The “eth0,” in this case, is the reference to the device. You’ll notice that this is similar to what appears in a graphical user interface (GUI) for a device label.
• root: This tells the tool that we are modifying the outbound traffic from the root level, or egress.
• netem: This word represents the phrase, “network emulator”. While it may not be the hardware network, it’s emulating the same. This is similar to how the Parallels software emulates the Windows software for Apple computers. Granted, it’s a completely different piece of software but is emulation software in the same way that netem is emulating a network. In this case, netem represents a WAN (wide-area-network) as opposed to a LAN (local-area-network). 
• delay: This word tells the tc tool that we’re modifying the “delay” component of the transaction.
• 400ms: We have already told the tool that we’re affecting the delay, but now we need to define how much we are affecting the delay. In this case, it’s by 400 milliseconds. 

Network Manager

The purpose of the Network Manager is to simplify and automate your network configuration. For DHCP users, the Network Manager can obtain an IP address, supersede default routes and automatically swap out nameservers.

The nmtui tool for using your Network Manager is available in most, though not all, Linux distributions. Also, keep in mind that some tools are “available” and yet not available. In other words, there are some tools and daemons that need to be installed and do not necessarily come pre-installed on the Linux distribution in question.

Other Networking Topics

There are many aspects of networking and TCP/IP that are particularly fascinating, especially when dealing with a Linux distribution. Don’t forget that you have manual pages (a.k.a. man pages) available right within the Linux installation. So, while this may appear to be a sort of unrelated list of what you shouldn’t do, you can always use a man page to figure out what you should do.

Linux as the Router

These days, most people use hardware that’s dedicated to the task of routing (i.e. router) to manage the network route task.

Many times, that’s because routers are a part of the package deal with home or office internet packages/contracts. The customer is usually caught paying a rental/lease fee per month (or annually) or having to purchase the router. 

However it’s handled, there’s little need for Linux to operate as a router even though it’s capable of functioning as one. The scenarios described above create an almost pseudo-deprecation situation for Linux, but that doesn’t mean Linux is out of the game entirely. It’s possible to set up a Linux server as the hardware (and subsequent software) router if you need to.

IP Route (Formerly “Route”)

The following image shows a screenshot of the man page for “Route” and the directives that are possible with that tool. 

SNORT – An Intruder Detection System

Snort Software is an open source Intrusion Detection System (IDS) originally developed by Martin Roesch and since acquired by Cisco Systems. It operates on the basis of rules that utilize the TCP/IP layers of the network. Defining those rules identify intrusions to protect a network.

How to Set Up Linux > TCP/IP Settings for Linux

The following mini tutorials will help you with some common tasks that you may come across in the Linux world. 

Keep in mind that times change quickly, so it’s helpful to use your man pages as well as searches in Google to verify the following steps and ensure that there aren’t any other tools that may do the job better. As of the writing of this article, that’s not the case.

Tutorial 01: Assigning a Static IP Address to a Linux Machine

The first question you should ask is whether or not the computer/server needs a static IP address (one that does not change) or a changeable IP address (like DHCP – Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol). If this is your personal computer (not a server), the chances are you may be using DHCP for your access to the internet.

What that means is that you don’t have to mess with assigning a static IP address to your computer. Your internet service provider (ISP) and any hardware provided/leased is automatically calculating an IP address on-the-fly to enable you to connect to the internet. In other words, if you don’t need a static IP address, a dynamically changing one is just fine for your non-server computer.

If you have a server and you need it to be accessible to others (i.e. outside your home; a WAN/internet; non-LAN) then you will need a static IP address so that either the domain that you are using is mapped to it via the hosting nameserver assigned to the domain, or accessible directly via the static IP address.

If no one needs to access your computer or server outside your home, then a changing IP address (dynamic; non-static) is just fine, because no one is using a static IP address.

Note: Some people have used a DHCP IP address for public access (yes, even as a server) but,

1. It requires a very technically-minded person to do so, so it’s not as common.
2. It’s much more difficult to maintain (because of its ever-changing nature) than a static IP address.

If you do need a static IP address, then go ahead and follow the steps here. If not, you can skip this section.

As you will see, the command (shown above) includes “sudo” at the beginning of the line. While it’s possible to use the “su” command (superuser) and log in as the superuser, the use of “sudo” only runs that one command as superuser.

The other method, logging in as superuser, allows all tasks to be completed as superuser, making it more convenient to do what needs to be done.

However, along with that comes a security risk, which is why it’s safer to simply start the command with sudo and allow the app to request a password (as needed) to complete the command as superuser for that task/command.

The choice is yours and should be based on whatever method is easier. The file represented by the screenshot below is accessed via the following command:

sudo vi /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0

Prior to using that command, the network device number is verified ( eth0 ) to ensure that it’s correct. As you recall, the Linux configurations are managed within the file for the interface so it’s essential that the interface number is verified from that file prior to editing the configuration file.

Another aspect of the configuration file to take notice of is the use of the word “static.” Since we are adding a static IP address, it’s important to let the configuration file know that that’s the case. 

The notes were added in the screenshot below for illustrative reasons, but should not be included in your configuration file. Also, in some Linux distributions, quotation marks are required. In this particular configuration file, no quotation marks were present in the auto-created configuration file so that trend was continued and no quotation marks were added.

The following screenshot shows how the file would actually appear, with the notes and extra spaces removed.

The next (and final) configuration file to be edited is accessed by typing:

sudo vi /etc/resolv.conf

Within that file, the nameservers can be added (or modified). Those nameservers should match the other configuration file that was just modified. In this case, at /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0 (the screenshot above).

The verbiage that will be used is “nameserver.” So, where the device configuration file  shows DNS1=8.8.8.8, the resolv.conf file should show nameserver 8.8.8.8.

The counterpart of DNS2=4.4.4.4 would show as nameserver 4.4.4.4 in the resolv.conf file.

Loosely put, the steps above work on the Red Hat Linux distribution, but there’s no guarantee that it’ll work in the future, with the technology changes that occur. This is why configurations should be tested and verified.

Once the configurations have been completed, restart the network interface with the preferred method as described above. This will apply the changes. It’s also helpful if the static IP address is tested. You can do this by attempting to connect to that public static IP address from another device (preferably on a different network).

You could also call a friend or associate and have them attempt a connection to the static IP address from another geographic location (and different network).

Tutorial 02: Network IP Aliasing

It’s possible to assign more than one IP address to one network interface card (NIC). This is called Network IP Aliasing because only one IP would be an actual one, so the additional IP addresses are aliases to the same card. In order to assign the IP address, use your favorite method of assigning the IP address as described in Tutorial 01.

It isn’t that it has to be static, but in order to have multiple IP addresses assigned using Network IP Aliasing, one has to assign IP addresses using a static IP.

Tutorial 03: Change Host Name of the Linux Machine

Use the following steps to change the hostname of your Linux machine using your preferred editor:

1.   Modify the hostname configuration file by typing the following in the command line app:

   sudo vi /etc/hostname

Wherever you see the old host name in that configuration file, replace it with the new host name.

2.   Modify the hosts configuration file by typing the following in the command line app:

   sudo vi /etc/hosts

Wherever you see the old host name in that file, replace it with the newly chosen/designated host name in the same way that you did with the hostname configuration file in the above step one.

3.   Restart the server or Linux computer. One method to do this (depending on your Linux distro) is to type the following in the command line app:

   sudo shutdown –r now

This restart is needed in order for the changes to take effect.

Tutorial 04: Enable and Disable Your NIC

One of the more fascinating things that you can do via the command line in Linux is to enable or disable your Ethernet connection.

To do this, type the appropriate command from these two:

   sudo ip link setup

   sudo ip link setdown

With older versions of Linux, you could run ifconfigup or ifconfigdown, but it’s possible that those commands are deprecated or obsolete within newer Linux distributions. In that case, the newer ip command is preferable.

Tutorial 05: Enable Network Forwarding

Your Linux operating system is capable of connecting a variety of networks and can act as a router. All you need to do is uncomment the net.ipv4.ip_fporward=1 line which will enable you to forward the IP address.

The necessary configuration file is normally stored at /etc/sysctl.conf:

For examples on how to set it up take a look at “How to enable IP forwarding on Linux (IPv4 / IPv6).”

If you’re setting up a Linux server using DHCP (instead of a static IP address) you can opt for a form of network forwarding. This is not common, but referenced here because it’s doable and it represents a case where someone may be inclined to do so.

Tutorial 06: Remote Commands Via Shell

In the case where you need to access a Linux server and that server is not geographically located in the same place as you, you may need to use remote commands to access that remote Linux server. 

For those who are programmers or system administrators, “remoting in” to a server is a normal occurrence. 

One of the most popular ways to do this is to use the “ssh” command, letting the command line app know that you want to securely access the Linux server, even if you are doing so via an insecure connection. 

In addition to the use of the “ssh” command, you need to provide information of where you’re connecting and how (among other options available).

You may use a domain name for the Linux server access or even a public static IP address. The name or IP address tells the ssh command what it’s accessing and where to find it.

Other options may include the username that will be used to login to the remote server. Without that option defined, it may be requested but it’s also an option to define it at the same time as the ssh command.

For example:

   ssh username myserver.com

The password may also be configured into the command but it’s recommended, for security reasons, that you enter that at the time of the connection with the remote server. 

Why? If the password is typed into the command, in plain text, it can be accessed by the next person using that same computer and they would have access to the password.

For additional security reasons you may want to access the Linux server via a specific port. By designating a port that may be used, you can block other ports and prevent hacker attempts or DOS (denial of service) attacks. 

There are many different configuration points for ssh. Some of these are listed at shellhacks.com.

Tutorial 07: Network Monitoring Tools

One important component of managing a network is verifying that everything works and continues to work. You can do this through network monitoring. Tools that accommodate network monitoring vary but ultimately accomplish similar goals and objectives.  

One such network-monitoring tool is Cacti. Cacti  is an open-source network monitoring tool. Cacti monitors the network and provides graphical representations of what has been logged. This helps users (especially newbies) to identify where there may be issues.

The front end can accommodate plenty of users and is sometimes used by hosting services to display real-time bandwidth information and other data in the following graphs..

Data can be fed into Cacti via any external script or command. Cacti will bring the data together via a cron-job and fill your MySQL database before presenting it as a front end user graph.

To handle data gathering, you can feed cacti the paths to any external script/command along with any data that the user will need to “fill in”. Cacti will then gather this data in a cron-job and populate a MySQL database.

Cacti is a useful tool for network administrators who want to monitor network use and provide easy-to-understand visuals to consumers. Cacti can be downloaded for free at cacti.net. The website includes documentation to install and configure the network monitoring tool.

Alternatives to Cacti you could try include, Solarwinds NPM, PRTG and Nagios. Solarwinds will support SNMP as well as ICMP/Ping, WMI, Netflow, Sflow, Jflow and IPFIX, to name a few. The pre-built templates, graphs and alerts help you to start monitoring your network quickly.

PRTG provides up to one hundred Sensors for free. It has similar features to Solarwinds, plus flexible alerts and applications for Smartphones, tablets, ipads.

Nagios has all of the tools you will find in Cacti, but does require a little more configuration. There are plenty of plugins to choose from. It has a solid reputation as one of the oldest network management and monitoring tools. But, you will have to get your hands dirty in the maintenance of its configuration files.

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